Timely provision of information. In order to make timely management decisions, data on a business transaction may be needed until all aspects of this operation become known. This reduces the reliability of the information. Conversely, if the presentation of information is delayed until all aspects are clarified, the information may be extremely reliable but will lose its relevance. Therefore, it is necessary to choose the optimal balance between the reliability of information and its relevance.  

The pragmatic aspect determines the possibility of achieving the goal, taking into account the information received. This aspect reflects the consumer properties of information. If the information turns out to be valuable, the behavior of its consumer changes in the right direction. The pragmatic aspect of information appears only if there is unity of information (object), consumer and goal.  

Explain the content of the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic aspects of the information.  

In this diagram, blocks of information processes are given on the left side, blocks of procedures are given on the right. A rectangular block depicts a process or procedure in which manual or traditional operations predominate. The oval shape of the blocks corresponds to automatic operations performed using technical means (computers and data transmission means). At the top of the diagram, information processes and procedures transform information that has a clearly defined semantic content. The syntactic aspect of information is in the background here. In this case, they talk about transforming the information itself. At the bottom of the diagram, data is converted, i.e. information presented in machine form. And at this level of representation, the syntactic aspect of information predominates.  

See also Data Bank, Data, Selective Information, Redundant Information, Data Processing, Pragmatic Aspect of Information, Relevant Information, Data Collection, Semantic Aspect of Information, Information Theory, Economic Information. Economic semiotics, Entropy.  

Semantic aspect of information 319  

Information. Information is information, messages, knowledge, fluids, data exchanged between people, people and technical devices, technical devices exchange signals between themselves in the animal and plant world, with outer space the transfer of signs from cell to cell, from organism to organism. The concept of information consists of two aspects: content and material. The content, or semantic, aspect of information consists in the presence of certain knowledge, information, messages, data or awareness about the state of the external and internal environment of the system. The material aspect is due to the fact that the transmission and storage of information requires material media on which it is recorded and then transmitted. Just as the introduction of the concept of energy made it possible to consider all natural phenomena from a single point of view, so the introduction of the concept of information allows us to approach the study of the processes of interaction of phenomena in nature from a single point of view. Information is never created. It is only received and transmitted, but at the same time it can be lost and disappear.  

If there is an undue delay in providing information, it may lose its relevance. Management may need to balance the relative merits of timeliness with presentation. reliable information. To ensure timely reporting, it is often necessary to report before all aspects of a transaction or other event are known, thereby reducing reliability. Conversely, if reporting is delayed until all aspects are clarified, the information may be extremely reliable but of little use to the users who should have made decisions earlier. In achieving a balance between relevance and reliability, the overriding consideration is to best meet the needs of users to make an economic decision.  

It is obvious that people use information very frequently in organizations. So far we have studied various aspects of information. Along the way, we noticed that computers collect data and make it possible to extract information from it. As the following discussion will show, computers are very useful for maintaining some types of information used, but not all.  

In post-industrial democracy, it becomes possible for citizens to directly control the activities of the state, based more on the free dissemination of information in society, including information about abuses of government agencies and government officials, than on the existence of strong opposition political parties with rigid internal membership. The main social value becomes not the state, not society, not a social group, but an individual who is a citizen of the state, a member of society and numerous social groups. Accordingly, the basis of the internal aspect of national security becomes the protection of the individual from excessive pressure from the state.  

The right to comprehensive information about the most important aspects of the product.  

Observation. We are talking about the objective collection and analysis of information on the problem and situation. For example, if the relationship between product demand and inventory levels is being considered, the manager must evaluate how inventory levels vary with demand. (Today, in large organizations, this and almost all other aspects of scientific analysis are usually carried out by staff specialists.)  

The objectives of the course are an in-depth study of various aspects of advertising activity as an integral part of marketing communications, a comprehensive analysis of all components of the advertising business, carried out on the basis of knowledge in the field of commerce, marketing and information technology, instilling skills in organizing advertising campaigns, conducting individual advertising events using various means dissemination of information.  

Since the benefit is a negative social cost, we can obtain information about the marginal social cost curve by asking how these three aspects are affected by increasing sulfur dioxide concentrations. At very low concentrations, negligible effects on health, safety of materials, and aesthetics are expected. At average levels of sulfur dioxide, studies of respiratory disease, material corrosion, and aesthetics have shown that the marginal social cost is positive and relatively constant. Thus, the marginal social cost curve first rises and then becomes horizontal.  

The same factors that influenced the development of calculation in our country are, to a greater or lesser extent, characteristic of other socialist countries. For example, we note that a prominent GDR scientist, professor at the Higher Economic School in Berlin, E. Koop-fernagel, wrote in 1965: The calculation of individual production work characterizes the level of organization, technology and management much better than can be revealed in the cost of the final product. This information is the basis for preparing appropriate decisions to regulate production at the enterprise. Based on the fact that within an enterprise, the calculation of work at individual stages of the production process and its control are much more important than the calculation of the final product, I come to the following conclusions for the external aspects of the enterprise, especially for aspects of pricing and national economic relationships, quite often year to prepare cost estimates for final products according to standards or other cost values.. ..Such standard cost estimates for final products will satisfy all pricing requirements. And further. Now it is no longer enough for enterprise managers to know how much the products they produce cost, they must also know why these products cost so much. This requires an internal aspect of cost information, continues E. Koop-fernagel. It is necessary to account for costs by operational units, and it is imperative to ensure a comparison of actual costs with standard or planned costs. These premises have been used in practice for a long time.  

The authors of the Procedure supplemented the Temporary Rules in the part (seemingly small detail) that the auditor’s report expresses the opinion of an independent auditor about the reliability (in all material aspects) of the information in the audited financial statements. The introduction of that became more noticeable. rules that the very business assessment of the balance sheet and performance of an economic entity follows from the so-called concept of a going concern, according to which an independent PSAD was later adopted. Applicability of the going concern assumption.  

Its main goal is to create and disseminate, ensuring public recognition of a positive image of the territory. This is usually a fairly low-cost strategy, since it does not require radical changes in infrastructure, the formation of other real factors attractiveness, but concentrates efforts primarily on improving communication aspects, information and promoting the already existing, previously created advantages of the territory.  

The eighth chapter is devoted to the use of self-organizing maps for analyzing real estate investments and estimating the value of land holdings. To do this, Ero Carlson uses geographical location data taken from the National Land Registry of Finland. It integrates RNS with the Geographic Information System, while focusing on scaling components to highlight specific aspects of information. To change individual components or focus attention on the properties being evaluated, the author resorts to

Raster editor. computer network. Network topology. Current drive. Team. Information system. Video memory. Basic hardware configuration. Software interface. Protocol. Utility software. Graphics editor. Data protection. Driver. File allocation table. Vector editor. Mouse. Relational database. Monitor. Translator. Control device. Software-hardware interface.

“The concept of economic informatics” - Total costs. Method of economic informatics. Share of IT expenses. Basic economic models. The subject of study is economic informatics. Economic informatics and information technology. Frustration with IT implementation. Share. Information processes. Share in education of economists. Place of IT activity.

“Science of computer science” - Basic concepts and definitions of computer science. Interfaces computing systems. Cybernetics. Subject and tasks of computer science. Discipline "Informatics". Properties of information. Dynamic nature of information. Reliability of information. Technical science. Origins and background of computer science. Automation. Problems of computer science. Rating system. Availability of information. Interface. A source of information. Information about the surrounding world.

"Economic Informatics" - System. Properties of data, information and knowledge. Computer science. Syntactic measure of information. Structure of analytical information. IS operation diagram. Economic information as a strategic resource. Main components of the IP. Structure of economic informatics. The emergence of computers. Method of economic informatics. Data, information and knowledge, measurement and application. Measures of information. Economic informatics and information systems.

“Work program on economic informatics” - A set of specialized courses. Information and information processes. Portfolio. Diagnostic study. Creative project. Composition. Questionnaire research. Formation of a rational family consumer budget. Algorithmization and programming. Basics of algorithmization. Control system. Educational and methodological kit. Current diagnostics. Winner of competition. Categorical apparatus. Certification form.

“Entertaining computer science” - Flowcharts of proverbs. Cuckoo. Miser pays twice. Measure seven times. Winchester. Solve puzzles. Window. Strike while the iron is hot. Solve the crossword puzzle. An hour of entertaining computer science. PC elements. Case. Name of the information process. Types of information. Insufficient salting. Try reading it. Specified location. All for searching terms. A smart person won't get ahead. Proverbs with computer filling. Identify the proverb. After the rain.

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• Introduction
• 2.1 Types of information
• 2.4 Data operations
• Conclusion
• Applications

Introduction

The term "information" comes from the Latin word "Informatio" - explanation, presentation, awareness. We can assume that this term in its initial representation is a general concept meaning some information, a set of data, knowledge, etc. The concept of information must be associated with a specific object, the properties of which it reflects. In addition, there is a relative independence of information from its carrier, since it is possible to transform and transmit it across various physical media using a variety of physical signals regardless of its content, i.e. to semantics, which has been the central issue of many studies, including in philosophical science. Information about any material object can be obtained by observation, natural or computational experiment, as well as on the basis of logical inference.

Therefore, they talk about pre-experimental (or a priori) information and post-experimental (i.e. a posteriori) information obtained as a result of the experiment.

For a person, any perception of real objects in the surrounding reality occurs through sensations. Human senses and the higher nervous system allow him to perceive objects. When exchanging information, there is a source in the form of an object of the material world and a receiver - a person or some kind of material object. Information arises due to reflection, which is a property of all matter, any material system. The property of reflection improves as matter develops from elementary reflection to its highest form - consciousness. The process of reflection means the interaction of objects in the material world. This process is most simple in inorganic nature. Mechanical, chemical and physical interactions. With such reflection, objects are passive. New forms of reflection (physiological and psychological) arise in organic nature. In a living organism, on the basis of reflection, the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions is formed. A person develops more complex forms of reflection: cognitive and creative. These forms are conscious in nature and allow a person to actively influence the world around him.

1. The concept of information and its aspects

In a philosophical sense, information is a reflection of the real world. This is information that one real object contains about another real object. Thus, the concept of information is associated with a specific object, the properties of which it reflects.

In computer science, information is understood as a message that reduces the degree of uncertainty in knowledge about the state of objects or phenomena and helps solve a given problem.

A change in some physical quantity over time that ensures the transmission of messages is called a signal.

We live in a material world consisting of physical bodies and physical fields. Physical objects are in a state of continuous movement and change, which are accompanied by the exchange of energy and its transition from one form to another. In order for the exchange of information, its transformation and transmission to take place in the material world, there must be an information carrier, transmitter, communication channel, receiver and recipient of information. A communication channel is a medium in which information is transferred. The communication channel unites the source and recipient of information into a single information system (Fig. 1.1).

Similar information systems exist in both technical systems, and in human society and living nature. Information systems can be divided into natural and artificial. The first group includes all naturally occurring systems. Such systems are biological organisms. Artificial information systems are information systems created by man.

Figure 1.1 Information system.

The recorded signals are called data. Some language is required to register them for storage and transmission. This language must be understandable to both the sender of the information and its recipient. Data can carry information about events occurring in the material world. However, data is not the same as information. To obtain information, a data processing method is needed. Information is a product of the interaction of data and methods of processing them adequate to them.

Information exists only at the moment of interaction between data and methods. The rest of the time it is contained in the form of data. Thus, firstly, there is no information in itself as some independent entity without its carrier in the form of some material processes, and secondly, there is no information regardless of the subject capable of extracting it from the received message. From the same data, different recipients can extract different information depending on the adequacy of their processing methods.

The data is objective, since it is the result of recording objectively existing signals caused by changes in material bodies and fields. At the same time, the methods are subjective, since they are based on algorithms compiled by people.

The recipient of information evaluates it depending on what task it will be used to solve. When assessing information, its syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects are distinguished.

The transmitted message must be represented as a sequence of characters of some alphabet. The syntactic aspect concerns the formal correctness of a message in terms of the syntactic rules of the language used, regardless of its content.

The semantic aspect conveys the semantic content of information and correlates it with previously available information. Knowledge about a certain subject area is recorded in the form of a thesaurus, that is, a set of concepts and connections between them. The thesaurus may change as information is received. The degree of this change characterizes the perceived amount of information. The semantic aspect determines the possibility of achieving the goal taking into account the information received, i.e. determines the value of information.

The amount of information contained in a certain message can be estimated by the degree to which the recipient's individual thesaurus changes under the influence of this message. In other words, the amount of information extracted by the recipient from incoming messages depends on the degree of preparedness of his thesaurus to perceive such information. If the individual thesaurus of the message recipient does not intersect with the sender’s thesaurus, then the recipient does not understand the message and for him the amount of information received is zero. This situation is similar to listening to a message in an unknown language. There is no doubt that the message is not without meaning, but it is incomprehensible, and therefore not informative. If the thesauri of the sender and recipient match, then the amount of information in the message will also be zero, since its recipient knows absolutely everything about the subject. In this case, the message does not give him anything new. A message carries information for the recipient only if their thesauri partially overlap.

A person first observes some facts, which are displayed as a set of data. This is where the syntactic aspect comes into play. Then, after structuring this data, knowledge about the observed facts is formed, which is recorded in a certain language. This is the semantic aspect of information. A person uses the acquired knowledge and information models created on its basis in his practice to achieve his goals.

In real life, a situation often arises when even the presence of complete information does not allow solving the problem. The pragmatic aspect of information is manifested in the possibility of its practical use.

Thus, not every message carries information. In order for a message to carry some information and be useful to the recipient, it must be:

· written in some language;

· this language must be understandable to the recipient;

· the recipient must have a method for extracting information from the message;

· the message should reduce the degree of uncertainty regarding the object that interests the recipient;

· the message should help him solve the task;

· the recipient must have a real practical opportunity to use the information received.

2. Types and properties of information

2.1 Types of information

All types of human activity to transform nature and society were accompanied by obtaining new information. Logical information that adequately reflects the objective laws of nature, society and thinking is called scientific information. It is divided according to areas of receipt or use into the following types: political, technical, biological, chemical, physical, etc.; by purpose - mass and special. Some information. which is recorded on paper is called documentary information. Any production operation requires the movement of documents, i.e. document flow arises. For automated systems management information in documents constitutes external information support. At the same time, most of the information is stored in computer memory on magnetic tapes, disks, etc. It is defined as intramachine information support.

Along with scientific information in the field of technology, technical information is used to solve production problems. It accompanies the development of new products, materials, unit designs, and technological processes. Scientific and technical information united by the term scientific and technical information: in the sphere of material production, technological information enshrined in design and technological documentation can circulate. In planned calculations, there is planning and economic information, which contains integral information about the progress of production and the values ​​of various economic indicators.

Information from the point of view of its emergence and improvement goes the following way: a person observes a certain fact of the surrounding reality, this fact is reflected in the form of a set of data, and with subsequent structuring in accordance with a specific subject area, the data turns into knowledge. Thus, the top level of information as a result of reflecting the surrounding reality (the result of thinking) is knowledge. Knowledge arises as a result of theoretical and practical activity. Information in the form of knowledge is highly structured. This allows you to highlight useful information when analyzing the physical, chemical and other processes and phenomena around us. Based on the structuring of information, a information model object. As society develops, information as a set of scientific and technical data and knowledge turns into the basis of a system of information services for scientific and technical activities of society.

Currently, information is used by all sectors of the national economy and, along with energy and minerals, is a resource of society. With the development of society, the need arises for the expedient organization of an information resource, i.e. specifying existing facts, data and knowledge in areas of science and technology. The recognition of information as a resource and the emergence of the concept of information resource gave impetus to the development of a new scientific direction - computer science. Computer science as a field of science and technology is associated with the collection and processing of large volumes of information based on modern software and hardware of computing and communications technology. Computer science studies properties information resources, develops effective methods and the means of their organization, transformation and application. Based on the achievements of computer science, new methods and algorithms for converting information are being developed, in which a user who is not qualified in computer technology, in a language close to natural, can communicate with the computing environment to solve the required practical problems. At the user level, computer science provides the basis for creating modern information systems, such as automated control systems, automated scientific research systems, information and reference systems, intelligent systems, real-time control systems, etc. Considering that the technical means of computer science are computing tools, its current state and directions for further development are largely determined by the prospects for the creation, development and implementation of personal computers, communication networks, languages ​​of communication between the user and computer technology. Computer science as a field of science and technology requires its further development. The following can be defined as the main directions of research in the field of computer science: development of new information technology for system design; development of intelligent methods for user access to the computing environment; creation of analysis and synthesis models information processes: improvement of software and hardware of computing and communications technology: transition to intelligent ASOIU (automated control information processing system) based on hybrid expert systems.

2.2 Continuous and discrete forms of information

Information about the state of an object in the IS is generated in the form of messages. A message means everything that can be communicated. Regardless of the content, the message is usually presented in the form of electrical, sound, light, mechanical or other signals. Thus, the message displays some source signals of any kind and depends on the properties of the source signals.

In an IC, all original signals coming from an object can be divided into two large groups: optical signals that display the stable states of some objects and can be presented, for example, in the form of a certain position of an element, a system, text in a document, a certain state electronic device etc., and dynamic signals, which are characterized by rapid changes in time, reflecting, for example, changes in the electrical parameters of the system.

Dynamic and static signals have their own areas of use. Static signals occupy a significant place in the preparation, recording and storage of information. Dynamic ones are used mainly for transmitting information. However, let's note. that this is not always necessary.

Based on the nature of changes in signals over time, continuous and discrete signals are distinguished. A continuous signal is represented by some continuous function and physically represents continuously changing vibration values. A discrete signal is characterized by a finite set of values ​​and, depending on initial state takes values ​​associated with a specific state of the system. Based on the physical essence of the process inherent in the control object, we can distinguish some types of continuous and discrete functions that display real signals:

1) a continuous function of a continuous argument. The function has the form f (t), is continuous over the entire interval and can describe the real signal at any time. In this case, no restrictions are imposed on the choice of the moment of time and the value of the function itself;

2) a continuous function of a discrete argument. Typically, such signals arise when continuous quantities are quantized in time. In this case, some fixed moments of time t J are specified, counted through the interval Dt. which is usually determined by the spectral properties of the original physical process. The function f (t J) can take any instantaneous values, but it is defined only for discrete time values. This type of signals and related functions occur when generating initial messages from continuous quantities;

3) discrete function of continuous argument f J (t). In this case, the function has a number of finite discrete values, but is defined over the entire time interval t for any instantaneous time value. Discretization of the function itself is associated with the creation of a quantization scale by level, which is typical various sensors, in this case the quantization step is determined by the required accuracy of reproduction of the original value;

4) discrete function of discrete argument f J (t J). In this case, the function takes one of the possible discrete values, the total number of which is finite, and is defined for a finite set of discrete time values. We have discretization both by levels and by moments of time.

In order to systematize messages and ensure the possibility of transmitting messages over communication channels, coding procedures are used; with the help of coding, the message is presented in a form that allows it to be transmitted through communication channels. A discrete message can be represented as a sequence of numbers or letters, with each number or letter representing one message. Using a code, each number or letter is represented by a certain set of pulses that make up a code combination. The main requirement for code combinations is the ability to distinguish them on the receiving side under certain influences of interference in communication channels. Total number code combinations is equal to the number of possible messages M.

When constructing the code, a number of features related to the capabilities of transmitting information over a communication channel are taken into account, in addition. the question of implementing technical means of converting messages into code, i.e. construction of encoding devices and corresponding inverse conversion means - decoding devices. The issues of ensuring the required accuracy and speed of information transfer are very important. Currently at times

In personal information transmission systems, including in information networks, a large number of codes have become widespread. Let's consider their general classification.

1. According to the base of the number system, codes are divided into binary, ternary, quaternary, etc. Each number system uses a certain set of symbols, and the number of possible symbols for the K-th system is equal to K. Binary codes are constructed using symbols 0,1; ternary - 0,1,2, while zero means no information transmission over the channel, i.e. absence of an impulse, one means a symbol with one value of the signal attribute, two - with another. A signal sign is understood as a certain value of current or voltage that allows one to distinguish one symbol from another.

2. According to their construction, codes are divided into systematic and non-systematic. The peculiarity of constructing systematic codes as separable is that they clearly separate the part of the code that carries the main information, and the part of the code that serves to detect and correct errors, which represents control information. Systematic codes can be constructed using deterministic algorithms, according to which it is possible to implement sufficient simple ways identifying these codes with detection or correction of errors.

Non-systematic codes are built using various methods combinations. These are codes for one combination, permutation placement, etc., and when they are identified, analysis is carried out by comparing the received combination with a known set of codes on the receiving side.

3. Based on the presence of redundancy, codes are divided into redundant and non-redundant. For non-redundant codes, it is characteristic that whenever a message is displayed by a code combination for the number M of possible code combinations, the main property is the ability to distinguish them. Then the code based on the number system K can be constructed as a display of a set of decimal numbers from zero to M-1 with the number of digits n in each code combination. For example, for M=4, a binary redundancy code can be obtained by representing the numbers 0,1,2,3 with a two-element binary code: 00,01,10,11, respectively.

If it is necessary to represent, for example, four messages in ternary non-redundant code, then the original decimal numbers Let's write 0,1,2,3 as 00,01,02,10. In the general case, M=K m messages can be represented by an m-element non-redundant code in the K-th number system. For example, with a two-element non-redundant ternary code you can have 3 2 =9 messages.

The transition from a non-redundant code to a redundant one when using systematic codes is carried out by adding some control positions, which can be obtained either by various logical operations performed on the main information positions, or by using deterministic algorithms that connect redundant and non-redundant codes. For example, if you need to move from a non-redundant code to the simplest redundant one, then for the case binary code designed for four messages, the display of which is code combinations 00,01,10,11, it is enough to enter one control position, the value of the symbol on which will be determined as the sum of the values ​​of the previous symbols modulo two. This logical operation in the binary system is determined by the equalities 0 0=0, 1 1=0, 0 1=1, 1 0=1. For the messages in question, we get 000, 011, 101, 110. The peculiarity of this code is that it allows you to detect any single error. Thus, the difference between non-redundant codes and redundant codes is that due to the lack of redundancy, they are not able to detect errors and therefore cannot be used to transmit information over noisy channels. In order to ensure reliable transmission of information over a communication channel under given probabilistic-time constraints, it is necessary to introduce redundancy into the code, which can be done by using additional control positions.

4. According to their correcting properties, codes are divided into detecting and correcting, or corrective. Detecting codes, when redundancy is introduced into them, make it possible to find errors; with the help of correcting codes, errors can be corrected, while the share of introduced redundancy increases significantly compared to the previous one. It should be noted that currently detection codes in combination with additional algorithms for increasing noise immunity through the use of a reverse communication channel are more widely used in information transmission systems.

5. Based on the location of code elements in time, sequential, parallel and serial-parallel codes are distinguished. In ICs, codes with sequential transmission of elements over time are more often used due to the peculiarities of using modulation and demodulation means in communication channels. The difficulty in implementing parallel codes lies in the fact that either signal features (for example, frequency) must be used that allow the simultaneous transmission of several of their values, or a set of signal features with simultaneous transmission of one value of each signal feature.

As an example, let us consider the possibility of parallel transmission of several messages using amplitude, polar and duration signal characteristics. Then, if it is necessary to transmit three messages, one of which is transmitted by a pulse of large amplitude, another by a pulse of negative polarity, and the third by a pulse of long duration, then the transmission of these messages will mean the appearance of a pulse of large amplitude, negative polarity and long duration. Obviously, it is not difficult to consider the possibility of transmitting any combination of two messages simultaneously.

It should be noted that parallel codes can be effectively used when transmitting relatively small amounts of information.

2.3 Geometric and combinatorial measures of information

When assessing the amount of information, first of all the question arises about the type of initial information, and therefore the measurement of information largely depends on the approach to the very concept of information, i.e. from the approach to its content. Currently, there are three main theories in which the concept of the meaningful nature of information is approached from different positions. Statistical theory evaluates information in terms of a measure of uncertainty. taken when receiving information. As a rule, it does not affect the meaning of the transmitted information, i.e. its semantic content. In statistical theory, the main attention is paid to the probability distribution of individual quanta of information and the construction on its basis of some generalized characteristics that make it possible to estimate the amount of information in a certain quantum.

A completely different approach is observed in semantic theory, which mainly takes into account the value of information, its usefulness and thereby helps to connect the value of information with aging, the value of information and its quantity with the efficiency of management in the system. Finally, the structural theory considers the principle of constructing individual information arrays, while some elementary structural units of quanta are taken as a unit of information, and the amount of information is estimated by the simplest counting of quanta in the information array.

Selecting a unit of information is currently a very pressing task. When transmitting continuous messages, they are often discretized in time, so a geometric measure is used. allowing you to determine the amount of information in individual samples taken over a certain time interval, i.e. the number of transmitted messages in this case is determined by the number of samples. When transmitting discrete information, the simplest measure of information can be the number of code combinations representing the transmitted messages. The number of combinations is obtained based on the combinatorial method and is determined by the structure of the code. its redundancy, i.e. way of construction. The disadvantage of this measure is the nonlinear relationship between the number of code combinations and the number of elements in the code. For example, for a non-redundant code, the number of code combinations is M=K n. Typically, a sequence of n symbols is transmitted over a communication channel, so it is advisable to have a characteristic linearly related to the number of elements in the code.

We will assume that the number of information f in the message depends linearly on the length of the code: f=kn. We will derive the formula for the number of information in a message under the following conditions:

1) discrete messages are transmitted;

2) messages are equally probable and mutually independent;

3) the symbols issued by the source are mutually independent: 4) the number system is finite.

Then df=kn. If M=K n, then dM = K n lnKdn, dn=dM/K n lnK and df = kdM/M lnК f =k lnM/lnK =k 1 log a M/lnK=k 0 log a M, (2.1 )

where k 0 =k 1 /lnK.

In information theory, the unit of information quantity is taken to be the number of information transmitted by two equally probable symbols, or messages. This unit is called a binary information unit.

Taking into account the above, we have for f =1 and M=2 1=k 0 log a . If k 0 =1, then a=2,f = I =log 2 M, where I is the amount of information in some average message. The formula I=log 2 M is called Hartley's formula; it is valid in accordance with the restrictions adopted above 1) - 4).

Let's consider how the code base affects the number of information. Let M messages be transmitted in two codes with bases K 1 and K 2, and numbers of elements n 1 and n 2. We will assume that both codes convey the same amount of information, i.e. M=K 1 n 1 =K 2 n 2, then k (K 1) n 1 =k (K 2) n 2, n 1 log a K 1 =n 2 log a K 2, k (K 1) /log a K 1 = k (K 2) /log a K 2 From the resulting expression it is clear that the proportionality coefficient is greater, the larger the base of the code used.

Let's connect the amount of information with the probability of individual messages appearing. If messages are equally probable and M different messages appear at the output of some source, then the probability of occurrence of each message is p (x 0 J) = 1/M, I = - log 2 p (x 0 J). Thus, we obtain a statistical measure of information that relates the probability of the occurrence of each message and the amount of information. Since the base of the logarithm is taken to be a binary unit, this measure represents a binary unit per message and reflects the amount of information that, on average, is contained in each equally probable message. The resulting expression in the general case determines the information contained in some event x 0 J from the set X 0 and is a function of the ensemble of this set. It is always non-negative and increases with decreasing probability p (x 0 J). Physically, this information can be considered either as some a priori uncertainty of the eventx 0 J from the set X 0, or as information required to resolve this uncertainty. It should be noted that this formula is the simplest: it does not take into account some patterns associated with information that the observer may have before the appearance of this message, and therefore the concept of mutual information occupies a very significant place.

Suppose that at the output of some source there appears a set of messages from the set X 0 , which we somehow determine taking into account the interference through the ensemble Y 0 . The appearance of some event from the ensemble Y 0 changes the probability p (x 0 J) from some prior probability p (x 0 J) to a posteriori probability p (x 0 J /y 0 J). To estimate the quantitative measure of the change in this probability, the logarithm of the ratio of the posterior to the a priori probability can be used, then information about some event from the set X 0 contained in some event from the set Y 0

I (x 0 J ,y 0 J) =log 2 (2.2)

Taking into account all the events included in the sets X 0 Y 0, we can finally obtain mutual information as a function of some ensemble X 0 Y 0

independent of the particular outcomes included in these ensembles. Summing over all possible events that make up the ensembles X 0 Y 0, we obtain

I (X 0 ,Y 0) =е J e i p (x 0 J ,y 0 i) *log 2 (2.3)

It is easy to see that in the particular case when the occurrence of a given outcome y 0 J unambiguously determines that the outcome x 0 J will be some specific element of the set X, we obtain our own information contained in a specific event, i.e. in the message.

information operation computer science discrete

The considered formulas can be used to estimate the amount of information in real transmission conditions. For example, if a set of binary sequences of length m is transmitted with a probability of occurrence of each sequence 1/M, where M = 2 m, then the own information contained in each message, or the amount in one average message I (X 0) = log 2 p (x 0 J ) =m binary units, i.e., using a code without redundancy, we obtain that each element of the binary code carries one binary unit of information. When introducing redundancy into the code, the number of transmitted messages M is maintained, but the length of the code increases additionally. The amount of information transmitted will be, if the transmitted messages are equally likely, as before, I=log 2 M, i.e. t binary units. Since n elements in the code are used to transmit m binary units, where n>m, then each code element transmits m/n binary units of information, i.e. In one redundancy code element, less than one binary unit of information is transmitted due to redundancy, which is spent either on detection or on error detection and correction.

Thus, the additive measure of information makes it possible to estimate the amount of information transmitted in one code element, taking into account the statistical properties of the information source, and makes it possible to subsequently move on to estimating the speed of information transmission and comparing it with the capacity of the communication channel, which generally allows us to give a general characteristic efficiency of using the communication channel, i.e. efficiency of matching the information source with the communication channel.

2.4 Data operations

You can perform various operations on data, the composition of which is determined by the problem being solved. The following data operations are independent of who performs them - technical device, computer or person.

1. Data collection - accumulation of data in order to ensure sufficient completeness for decision-making.

2. Formalization of data - bringing data coming from different sources to the same form, which makes it possible to make them comparable to each other.

3. Data filtering - filtering out data that is not necessary for decision-making, while reducing the noise level and increasing their reliability and adequacy.

4. Sorting data - ordering data according to a given characteristic for the purpose of ease of use.

5. Data protection - a set of measures aimed at preventing the loss, reproduction and modification of data.

6. Data archiving - organizing data storage in a convenient and easily accessible form, reducing storage costs and increasing the overall reliability of the information process.

7. Data transportation - reception and transmission of data between remote participants in the information process.

8. Data conversion - transferring data from one form to another. Often associated with a change in media. For example, books can be stored in paper form, or electronically.

Conclusion

In applied computer science, the amount of information is almost always understood in a volumetric sense. No matter how important the measurement of information is, all problems associated with this concept cannot be reduced to it. When analyzing information of social (in a broad sense) origin, its properties such as truth, timeliness, value, completeness, etc. may come to the fore. They cannot be assessed in terms of "reduction of uncertainty" ( probabilistic approach) or number of characters (volumetric approach). Turning to the qualitative side of information has given rise to other approaches to its assessment. With the axiological approach, they strive to proceed from the value, practical significance of information, i.e. qualitative characteristics that are significant in the social system. In the semantic approach, information is considered both from the point of view of form and content. In this case, the information is linked to the thesaurus, i.e. completeness of a systematic set of data about the subject of information. Note that these approaches do not exclude quantitative analysis, but it becomes significantly more complex and should be based on modern methods of mathematical statistics.

The concept of information cannot be considered only a technical, interdisciplinary or even supradisciplinary term. Information is a fundamental philosophical category.

List of used literature

1. Borovikov V.P. [By text] Forecasting in the STATISTICA system in Windows environment. Fundamentals of theory and intensive practice on the computer: Textbook. allowance. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2009. - 384 pages: illus....

2. Butch G. Object-oriented programming with examples of application. - Kyiv: Dialectics, M.: I.V.K., 1992.

3. Gorban A.N. Methods of neuroinformatics. KSTU, Krasnoyarsk, 2008.205 pp.

4. Goncharuk V.A. Enterprise development. M.: Delo, 2000.208 p.

5. Gorodetsky V.I. Applied algebra and discrete mathematics. Part 3. Formal systems of logical type. - USSR Ministry of Defense, 1987. - 177 pp. with illust...

Applications

Annex 1

Make up a formula

Appendix 2

Compiling a table

Statement of settlement with agricultural enterprise

Appendix 3

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One of the eight components of the information flow into which the individual’s psyche divides it for orientation in the communicative space. The need for an eight-term division of information follows from the fundamental communication constant - the Miller number 7 ± 2. This is how many units of information can be held RAM person at the same time.

Information aspects are received and processed by socionic functions. Therefore, these terms are sometimes used as synonyms. An ordered set of socionic functions forms a socionic personality type (see article Sociotype). The spectrum of information aspects is a universal network of concepts with the help of which any intellectual, psychological and social phenomena can be analyzed.

The system of socionic functions is the logical conclusion of the teachings of C. G. Jung about four irreducible ways of reflecting the surrounding world by a person - sensations (sensory), thinking (logic), feeling (ethics) and intuition. Each of Jung's four psychological functions can be manifested by its extroverted (active) and introverted (passive) sides. Thus, the number of functions doubles and we get eight basic concepts. In the tradition of the school of social analysis, they have the following designations and names:

1. L - structural logic (circuit, system, structure)
2. P - business logic (technology, work, profit)
3. R - ethics of relationships (sympathy, gravitation, affection)
4. E - ethics of emotions (emotions, feelings, moods)
5. T - intuition of time (predictions, premonitions, forecasts)
6. I - intuition of possibilities (insights, guesses, discoveries)
7. S - sensory sensations (comfort, health, aesthetics)
8. F - force sensory (pressure, pressure, subjugation)

Information aspects are fully and consistently described by seven dichotomies - binary distinctive features (see article Dichotomy). All signs are equal. In order to be sure which aspect we are talking about, you need to record at least three signs out of seven. Dichotomous divisions provide the following contrasts between groups of aspects and their corresponding functions.

1. Active functions (E, P, F, I) vs Passive (R, L, S, T)

Active functional states are easily detected by a person’s externally expressive behavior. Passive ones are not associated with externally noticeable emotional and motor reactions. In a passive state, expression gives way to impression - internal impressionability, reflection.

The states generated by active functions are suitable for public speaking and general social activities. They have the property of induction to a high degree - penetration into neighboring psychologically neutral areas and their assimilation (likening themselves).

Passive functional states, on the contrary, lead to isolation and disunity, the dominance of the individual over the collective. But only in these states does a person know himself and engage in self-improvement.

2. Discrete, or fractional functions (E, P, L, R), on the one hand, and Continuous, or integral functions (F, T, I, S), on the other

Fractional functions clearly break the perceived information into parts, and integral ones work in a syncretic way, in which the boundaries between parts are blurred and fluid, as a result of which the concept of part itself loses its meaning.

There is one more difference between discrete functions and continuous ones: the former can be considered as conscious, and the latter as unconscious. The rationale for this distinction is that awareness of something presupposes the separation of the observer from the observed phenomenon, and unconsciousness is the complete merging of the observer with the phenomenon, as a result of which he becomes an integral part of it, unaware of his specificity.

3. Dynamic, or nonequilibrium functions (E, P, S, T), on the one hand, and Static, or equilibrium functions (R, L, F, I), on the other

Dynamic functions are like a longitudinal section of the information flow, showing how the state of certain points in space changes over time. They reflect the state's relationship to itself.

Static functions convey a picture of a cross-section of the information flow, demonstrating the relationships between simultaneously existing points (the “I - others” relationship).

Dynamic functioning of the psyche occurs when the process of excitation prevails over inhibition. The functions E and P are especially nonequilibrium. The dynamics of S and T are less pronounced, since in these states the individual temporarily regains the lost balance, but it is immediately destroyed again.

Static states occur when inhibition begins to prevail over excitation. The most static functions are L and R. I and F are characterized by the fact that the individual in these states periodically strives to get out of balance, but this does not succeed for a long time - internal calm is quickly restored.

4. Involved functions (E, R, F, S), on the one hand, and Abstract functions (P, L, I, T), on the other

These categories of functions differ in the communicative distance at which they are implemented. The involved functions operate at close distances, they process specific - kinesthetic, bodily perceptible information and correspond to the first signaling system according to I. P. Pavlov. This includes visual-effective thinking and emotional-evaluative thinking.

Abstract functions operate at long distances and work with information of an abstract, generalized nature. They correspond to that part of the human mental apparatus that I. P. Pavlov called the second signaling system. Verbal-conceptual thinking corresponds to logic, and visual-figurative thinking corresponds to intuition.

5. Explicit or explicit functions (P, L, F, S), on the one hand, and Implicit, or hidden (E, R, I, T), on the other

Explicit functions are so named because their mechanism of action is easily understood by an outside observer. Explicit functioning corresponds to the organization of the left hemisphere of the human brain. These states are relatively prevalent in the so-called “thinking” type of psyche according to I.P. Pavlov.

Explicit left-hemisphere functional states and the information generated by them are easily encoded by sign systems and transmitted through communication channels. These states are realized as fully as possible, for example, within a group with a focus on a managerial type of activity (FL, LF, PS, SP).

The mechanism of action of implicit functions, on the contrary, is hidden and poorly understood. It is very difficult to encode and copy. We talk about implicit functions when we talk about mysterious insights, unexpected emotional upsurges, prophetic dreams, etc. According to I.P. Pavlov, the predominance of implicit functions gives rise to an artistic type of personality in which the right hemisphere dominates.

The same is evidenced by numerous studies of the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres, from which we know that emotions and imagination are localized in the right hemisphere. All four implicit functions are implemented within the framework of a humanitarian orientation towards the type of activity (ET, TE, IR, RI).

6. Goal-setting functions (E, L, I, S) are opposed to executive, or executive (P, R, F, T)

Goal setting is the first stage of any conscious process unfolding over time. Function E creates an energy potential difference, which manifests itself in the desire to perform a particular action. Using the L function, a plan or diagram of the upcoming action is built, clearly defining what needs to be done and in what sequence.

Function I carries out goal setting through retargeting, i.e., indicating new, previously unknown, but fundamentally achievable goals. And finally, function S carries out not ideal, but real, immediate goal setting, which comes down to satisfying the physiological needs of the individual for food, drink, sleep, household amenities, etc.

Goal setting is followed by the stage of executing the plan, which requires functions called executive. Function P is the process of movement, as well as the work performed by a moving object. Function R is internal tension, “magnetization” of an object, preventing or, conversely, promoting its movement, a kind of internal “mental” work.

Function F is the force that sets an object in motion, or changes its trajectory. The trajectory of movement itself is a function T, which is a kind of trace left or one that will be left by an object as a result of force acting on it.

7. Motor functions (E, L, F, T) are opposed to Inertial functions (P, R, I, S)

The source of movement is usually the accumulated emotions E, eager for release, the force F, acting either on the entire object or on part of its surface (then we are talking about pressure), as well as the law or rule L, which prescribes the performance of one or another action. In addition, the object begins to move against its will and desire due to the inexorable laws of natural aging - waste of energy from birth to death. This refers to the functional state T - change under the influence of time.

Inertial functions are those that move only because of the previously stored momentum (mv). Inertial motion could occur indefinitely if there were no resistance from the medium. The movement impulse itself is described by the functional state P, the internal tension that arises between the individual parts of the object is the state R, the equivalent choices of directions that open during movement are the state I, and the sensations of deformation experienced during movement are the state S.

Determines the need to use quantitative methods to describe quality.  

Development of new information systems. They allow in certain aspects to automate the management and control process. Simultaneously with the development of powerful information systems using modern computing capabilities and telecommunication technologies, the content of information flows involved in the control procedure is changing. Due to the shift in current control from top to bottom, information flows from the consumer to the manufacturer become more direct and do not affect the higher echelons of management. At the same time, the general trend of control in all advanced organizations is a decrease in the number of controlled indicators with a simultaneous increase in the number of measurements and an increase in the efficiency of each control procedure.  

The pragmatic (consumer) aspect of information support involves analyzing the usefulness of information. This analysis is carried out in relation to a specific object and time period. It includes an assessment of the subject’s information support with the necessary information, i.e., the practical use in the management process of information reliability, i.e., the provision of all the data necessary to control the frequency or intensity of use, the completeness of use, the timeliness of receipt of information, fitness for variant processing, the reliability and reliability of information for tasks of a specific usability class.  

Naturally, the simplest conclusion suggests itself is that such a separation is neither methodologically nor organizationally justified. But many researchers understood that there was a problem here: production accounting is somehow separated from costing. However, all previous experience indicates that production accounting is the basis for reliable calculation. And then compromise solutions and conclusions began to appear; production cost accounting methods and calculation methods are closely interrelated and form one whole; these methods represent two separate, but interconnected and interdependent stages of production accounting; cost accounting and calculation are a single process consisting of two stages. These approaches did not bring clarity to the solution of the issue, and often confused it even more. If the method of cost accounting and calculation is one whole, then to what degree of independence are the interconnected elements, why do two separate stages represent a single process, what is it really - one whole or two stages These and other questions remain unanswered, but even having found comprehensive answers, we will not receive approaches to solving the problem of strengthening the information aspects of cost accounting and calculation in the interests of operational cost management during production.  

Feedback is extremely important for the control system, with the help of which contact with the controlled system is maintained. Information about the processes occurring in the managed system is used as a means of feedback. Without information, the management process itself becomes meaningless. Information coming from control objects must be prompt, otherwise it may become useless, therefore the most important element of the control system is an effective information system. Meanwhile, management theory is not sufficiently focused on the study of computer science as the most important component of the management process. The question has arisen about the creation of information science, the task of which would include the theoretical and linguistic foundations of computer science, information processing and information technology, the development and operation of information systems and networks. Computer science should focus not on the technical aspect (the study of programming languages, technical means of automation, etc.), but on the humanitarian aspect, on the study of data structure, information flows, arrays, systems, processes, information products, their composition, transformation, consumer requests and ways to satisfy them, etc. The solution to this problem will give impetus to the further development of management science.  

This paper does not cover all aspects of organizational design. Thus, in connection with the separation and independent development of technical support for management processes in terms of automated processing, transmission, storage, reproduction of information, issues of designing technical support for management activities are not considered here. However, when designing information support for control systems, it is necessary to take into account the use of technical means. A similar picture applies to the design of jobs in the management system and the development of rational forms of documents. Due to the fact that there are currently enough a large number of design and technical solutions for the rational organization of workplaces in the management system, for the formation of a rational system of documentation support for management activities  

Monitoring compliance with legislation is the main thing in tax practice, in administration, and this constitutes the specificity, something exclusive, that is inherent in the management of tax relations in society. Therefore, tax administration is specific. This is not just managing the tax system itself, some area of ​​work within it, or managing the activities of a team of tax authorities. Mainly, this is the management of taxation processes when introducing taxes or legislative changes in their effect. The appearance of such a phrase among specialists is not accidental after the adoption of the Tax Code, especially its second part on specific taxes, when it was necessary to strengthen control over compliance with its provisions and expand information and explanatory work. The presence of approved standards strengthens administration in all aspects of their implementation.  

It is also obvious that the budgeting process focuses on the work of the entire energy company management system, requires a progressive regulatory framework and constant monitoring of many aspects of both the internal and external environment, a well-functioning automated information system capable of quickly making changes to the associated budgets.  

The specialist must master the art of problem solving in crisis management processes and the practical methodology of effective management in conditions of risk, crisis and uncertainty. He must also have special training in the field of understanding and taking into account the specifics of the enterprise’s work in the regional and industry infrastructure, the functional specifics of financial management, personnel management, technology, information flows, etc. Already at this stage of the general sequence, a group of specialists has the opportunity to encounter theoretical aspects  

Information is the most important commodity. Whoever owns the information controls the situation. In a competitive environment, the one who survives is the one who knows how to obtain information about market conditions in a timely manner and in the required volume, obtain data for analyzing processes and forecasting trends, about new equipment and technologies, while at the same time preserving information on the basis of which one can get ahead and ensure the next stage of development of the company. Information is considered the main factor in the development of modern society, it permeates all aspects of management, determines economic results, which is why this society is called an information society.  

In this regard, in various applied areas of information processing and management, the information environments of computing systems must reflect intellectual activity and be capable of collaborating with people in a real-world setting. Since an intelligent system is understood as a set of technical means and software integrated by information processes, working autonomously or in conjunction with a person (a team of people), capable of synthesizing a goal based on information and knowledge, with motivation, making decisions about action and finding rational ways to achieve a goal, then in the technological aspect, the computing parts of intelligent systems must be able to flexibly process information about real world, as a person does, since many problems in this world are poorly defined and difficult to represent in the form of an algorithm. In general, this circumstance can be called an algorithmic crisis.  

Informatization is such a multifaceted and dynamic process that a number of its aspects still remain insufficiently studied or require adaptation to modern conditions. Many issues, especially from a regional perspective, require detail and are only beginning to be studied in more depth. Among such issues are the features of the formation of informatization during the period of economic reform, the problems of effective management of informatization at the level of a subject of the Federation, the definition of the essence and role of large-scale implementation of information technologies in the public administration system at all its levels, as well as in local governments. We need convenient methods for calculating the achieved level of regional informatization and the relationship between the state of informatization and the indicators of regional development.  

The set of processes understood as a purposeful change in time of the properties of objects is quite wide and can be classified according to a number of characteristics. One of them is the type of objects A, the properties of which are subject to change in the process R. Based on this feature, we can distinguish a wide class of so-called information processes, the objects of which are various types of information. In the cybernetic aspect, planning and management processes can be attributed to this class. Their characteristic feature from the point of view  

Currently, the requirements for optimal organizational structures are becoming more and more complex and comprehensive, which causes the emergence of increasingly advanced tools for multi-aspect computer-aided design and modeling of organizations, allowing the creation of organizational projects that include administrative communications, horizontal processes, an information system, and a structure of goals. and tasks, and production and technological infrastructure, and socio-psychological aspects of the organization, and financial and economic indicators of the organization’s activities and its management.  

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The information-organizational part of the management system determines its structure, connections between the management body and the management object, the direction and composition of information flows, as well as the list of tasks solved in the system. This part of the system determines the composition of both the Mathematical and technical aspects of the system. The information part of automated control systems is the most complex and dynamic component of the control system. Information is the product, the raw material on which operations of transformation, transfer, and processing are performed during the management process. Other elements. management processes - material, energy, etc. - have an extremely small share and recede into the background.  

Information technology for integrating all processes of the ALS product life cycle covers, on the one hand, all stages